The pursuit of optimal performance in running is a complex endeavour, often driven by the delicate balance between actual pace and the subjective feeling of that pace. While runners may strive to maintain a specific pace, the perception of that pace can vary considerably, impacting their overall experience and endurance.
Recent research has shed light on the nuances of this relationship, revealing the multifaceted nature of pacing and the various factors that influence an individual's perceived effort during a run (1). Studies have investigated various aspects of pacing strategies, considering factors such as age, gender, performance level, and psychological influences on how runners regulate their speed during a race. Some research has indicated that indicated that faster marathoners tend to maintain a more consistent pace when compared to slower runners, with age, gender, and ability influencing pacing decisions, particularly among recreational runners (2). The literature suggests that in shorter athletic events, lasting less than 30 seconds, an all-out burst of energy may be the most beneficial distribution strategy (1). However, in longer endurance events, the optimal pacing behaviour becomes more complex, as runners must continually make decisions regarding how and when to expend their energy (3).
Pacing consistency is reported to impact overall performance and endurance during a race. Berndsen and colleagues (2020) highlighted the connection between pace and runners' subjective feelings during a race, observing a sudden increase in pace towards the end of a race based on runners' perceived exertion and remaining distance (4). This underscores the delicate balance between physical capabilities and mental perceptions that shape pacing strategies. This indicates that psychological factors, such as risk assessment, significantly influence pacing strategies. The published works of Inoue and colleagues (2019) had delved into the investigation of the impact of sex/gender and performance level on pacing behaviour in ultramarathons, proposing that conservative pacing strategies, starting with slower speeds and gradually increasing towards the end, may be more suitable for various endurance disciplines (5). Of noteworthy mention, the interaction between age and performance on pacing differ between older and younger populations, in that older runners tend to exhibit smaller changes in pace compared to younger counterparts with similar race times. This research finding suggests that age can be viewed as a factor in pacing management during a race (6). Further to this, it is implied that running experience plays a role in the approach to pacing strategies during races or training. This finding highlights the importance of tailoring pacing strategies to individual characteristics and race distances.
To improve pacing approaches for runners, cognitive strategies and motivations in pacing can be applied to improve actual pacing and the feeling of pace whilst running. To do this, both environmental and internal cues can be used to influence runners' perceptions of effort and pace, or effort versus pace. Recent research findings show that one factor that can significantly impact an individual's perception of pace is the presence of external stimuli, such as music. In this research, it has been demonstrated that that the tempo of music can influence the internal movement tempo of the body, as well as the arousal level of the runner, potentially raising the threshold of fatigue perception and speeding up recovery from exercise fatigue (7). As such, runners may be able to perceive their pace differently when exposed to appropriate musical accompaniment, potentially enhancing their overall running experience. In addition to this, the parallel Information Processing Theory posits that the bandwidth of human attention processing narrows during exercise, leading runners to pay more attention to their internal physical sensations in the absence of external stimuli (7). This increases the focus on bodily cues such as perception of fatigue and effort, and this could potentially lead to a distorted sense of pace.
Some research investigated the impact of pacing properties on performance in long-distance running, suggesting that while there is no definitive optimal strategy, professional runners often benefit from maintaining a constant pace or following a negative pacing approach (8). This highlights the importance of pacing consistency in achieving optimal performance outcomes. Further to this, it was recommended that pacing strategies used in training should be utilised in marathon or long-distance running events. There should be no big changes in pacing strategy during a marathon event as this is what the body has trained and is used to (9).
In looking at gender as a factor, Smyth and colleagues (2021) reported on the concept of late-race pacing collapse in marathons. In this research, it was indicated that there are gender differences in pacing risks, with males being more likely to overestimate their abilities and adopt aggressive pacing strategies, in comparison to female counterparts. As such, this could potentially lead to performance challenges towards the end of the race (10). In looking at both age and gender differences, Čuk and colleagues (2021) investigated differences in pacing for long-distance running, utilizing data from mass-participation events to analyze pacing patterns among non-elite distance runners. This broader perspective expanded understanding on how different demographic groups approach pacing in endurance races (11). In support of the previous research mentioned above, age, sex/gender, and finish time can be viewed as determinants of pacing in marathons and/or long-distance running events, and therefore we can draw valuable insights from these scientifically published works. This offers us as experts, coaches and runners valuable information to assist us in optimizing pacing strategies based on individual characteristics.
In conclusion, there are a variety of factors contributing to the complexity underscoring pacing decisions, and this goes beyond physical abilities. Recent research on the relationship between pace and the perception of pace among runners are multifaceted, shaped by a variety of physiological, psychological, and environmental factors. From the research above, it is known that factors such as age, gender, risk-taking behaviour, cognitive strategies, and environmental cues all contribute to how runners manage their speed/pace during a race or during training. As researchers continue to explore this topic, the insights gained may help runners and running coaches optimize training strategies, enhance the running experience, and ultimately, unlock new levels of athletic performance (3,7). Understanding these dynamics is essential for coaches and athletes to develop effective pacing strategies that enhance performance and endurance. It is suggested that running coaches adopt an athlete-centred approach to tailoring programmes in order to understand pacing approaches for each of their athletes, individually.
References:
1. Menting SGP, Hendry DT, Schiphof-Godart L, Elferink-Gemser MT, Hettinga FJ. Optimal Development of Youth Athletes Toward Elite Athletic Performance: How to Coach Their Motivation, Plan Exercise Training, and Pace the Race. Front Sports Act Living. 2019 Aug 20;1.
2. Smyth B. Fast starters and slow finishers: A large-scale data analysis of pacing at the beginning and end of the marathon for recreational runners. Journal of Sports Analytics. 2018 Apr 24;4(3):229–42.
3. Renfree A, Casado A. Athletic races represent complex systems, and pacing behavior should be viewed as an emergent phenomenon. Vol. 9, Frontiers in Physiology. Frontiers Media S.A.; 2018.
4. Berndsen J, Lawlor A, Smyth B. Exploring the wall in marathon running. Journal of Sports Analytics. 2020 Jun 9;6(3):173–86.
5. Inoue A, Santos TM, Hettinga FJ, Alves D de S, Viana BF, Terra B de S, et al. The Impact of Sex and Performance Level on Pacing Behavior in a 24-h Ultramarathon. Front Sports Act Living. 2019 Nov 6;1.
6. Nikolaidis PT, Knechtle B. Effect of age and performance on pacing of marathon runners. Open Access J Sports Med. 2017 Aug;Volume 8:171–80.
7. Wu J, Zhang L, Yang H, Lu C, Jiang L, Chen Y. The Effect of Music Tempo on Fatigue Perception at Different Exercise Intensities. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Apr 1;19(7).
8. de Leeuw AW, Meerhoff LA, Knobbe A. Effects of Pacing Properties on Performance in Long-Distance Running. Big Data. 2018;6(4):248–61.
9. Díaz JJ, Fernández-Ozcorta EJ, Santos-Concejero J. The influence of pacing strategy on marathon world records. Eur J Sport Sci. 2018 Jul 3;18(6):781–6.
10. Smyth B. How recreational marathon runners hit the wall: A large-scale data analysis of late-race pacing collapse in the marathon. PLoS One. 2021 May 1;16(5 May).
11. Cuk I, Nikolaidis PT, Villiger E, Knechtle B, Stankevičius E. medicina Pacing in Long-Distance Running: Sex and Age Differences in 10-km Race and Marathon. 2021; Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina
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